Complete UPSC Agriculture Optional Syllabus

📘 Paper I 8 Topics
📗 Paper II 11 Topics
🏆 500 Total Marks
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📘 Paper I  ·  Ecology, Agronomy & Applied Sciences

250 Marks
1
Ecology and Environment
Foundation — 30-50 marks/year
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Ecology and its relevance to man
Ecosystem structure & function (biotic-abiotic components energy flow) Food chains food webs ecological pyramids Biogeochemical cycles - carbon nitrogen phosphorus sulphur Ecological succession - primary & secondary Biodiversity - levels hotspots India's biodiversity (PYQ-recurrent: hotspots & conservation ~2018-2022) Ecosystem services & valuation
Natural resources, sustainable management and conservation
Renewable vs non-renewable resources Sustainable development goals (SDGs) relevant to agriculture Land degradation & desertification - causes and remedies Joint Forest Management (JFM) & community-based conservation Protected area network - National Parks Wildlife Sanctuaries Biosphere Reserves (PYQ-recurrent) Wetland conservation - Ramsar sites in India
Physical and social environment as factors of crop distribution and production
Agro-climatic regions of India (15 zones - ICAR classification) Effect of temperature rainfall photoperiod on crop distribution Role of soil type in determining cropping pattern Socio-economic factors - land holding size market access irrigation infrastructure Crop zoning and regional specialization
Agro ecology; cropping pattern as indicators of environments
Concept of agro-ecosystem vs natural ecosystem Cropping intensity and cropping pattern - definitions & determinants Indicator crops/cropping patterns for specific agro-climatic conditions Agroecological zones (AEZ) Agroecological regions of India - NBSS&LUP classification
Environmental pollution and associated hazards to crops, animals and humans
Air pollution - effect on crop growth (ozone SO2 particulate matter) Water pollution - eutrophication heavy metal contamination of irrigation water Soil pollution - pesticide residues heavy metals plastic mulch residues (PYQ on pesticide residue & food safety) Pesticide toxicity - bioaccumulation biomagnification in food chain Stubble/crop residue burning - causes impact alternatives (PYQ-recurrent 2019-2023)
Climate change - International conventions and global initiatives
UNFCCC Kyoto Protocol Paris Agreement - key provisions relevant to agriculture IPCC reports - findings on agriculture & food security COP outcomes relevant to agriculture (loss & damage fund methane pledge) Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) of India - agriculture sector targets Carbon trading & carbon credits in agriculture
Greenhouse effect and global warming
Major greenhouse gases - sources from agriculture (CH4 from rice/livestock N2O from fertilizers) Global warming potential (GWP) of agricultural GHGs Impact of global warming on crop phenology- yield- pest-disease dynamics Climate-resilient agriculture & climate-smart agriculture (CSA) practices National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA)
Advance tools for ecosystem analysis - RS and GIS
Principles of remote sensing - active vs passive spectral signatures Applications of RS in crop area estimation yield forecasting (FASAL CHAMAN programmes) GIS applications - land use/land cover mapping - soil mapping - watershed delineation GPS-guided precision agriculture - variable rate application Drone technology in agriculture - crop health monitoring - spraying (Kisan Drone - PM-Kisan drone scheme)
2
Agronomy
Highest scoring — 40-50 marks
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Cropping patterns in different agro-climatic zones
Major cropping patterns - rice-wheat / cotton-wheat / sugarcane-based systems Cropping pattern shifts - reasons (MSP / irrigation / market) Crop diversification - need / government schemes (RKVY / crop diversification programme in Punjab/Haryana) Cropping pattern in rainfed vs irrigated regions
Impact of HYVs and short-duration varieties on cropping pattern shifts
Green Revolution - impact on cropping intensity and pattern (PYQ classic topic) Short duration varieties enabling multiple cropping/relay cropping Varietal replacement & seed replacement rate (SRR) Second Green Revolution - rainfed/eastern India focus
Concepts of various cropping and farming systems
Mono-cropping multiple cropping mixed cropping intercropping relay cropping Crop rotation - principles & advantages Farming systems - integrated farming system (IFS) approach Cropping systems for different agro-ecological situations Conservation agriculture - zero tillage residue retention
Organic and Precision farming
Principles of organic farming - components (compost / biofertilizer / biopesticide) Certification - PGS-India / NPOP / organic export standards Natural farming (ZBNF) - concept / schemes (BPKP - Bharatiya Prakritik Krishi Paddhati) Precision farming - components (GPS / GIS sensors / variable rate technology) Site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) & leaf colour chart (LCC)
Package of practices - cereals
Rice - SRI method / DSR (direct seeded rice) / water management Wheat - sowing time/temperature requirement / zero tillage technology Maize - hybrid seed production / plant population management Millets - International Year of Millets 2023 / package of practices for jowar/bajra/ragi
Package of practices - pulses
Major pulse crops - chickpea / pigeonpea / lentil / mungbean - sowing/spacing norms Rhizobium inoculation & nitrogen fixation benefit Pulses in cropping system - intercropping with cereals Yellow Revolution & National Food Security Mission - Pulses component.
Package of practices - oilseeds
Major oilseeds - groundnut / soybean / mustard / sunflower - agro-techniques Yellow Revolution (historical) vs current oilseed mission (National Mission on Edible Oils - Oilseeds / NMEO) Edible oil import dependence - policy response Oil palm cultivation expansion (NMEO-OP)
Package of practices - fibres, sugar, commercial and fodder crops
Cotton - Bt cotton / spacing / integrated pest management Sugarcane - ratoon management / trash mulching / water management Jute - retting process / climate requirement Fodder crops - berseem / oats / napier grass - role in livestock integration Commercial crops - tobacco / tea / coffee agro-techniques (region-specific)
3
Weed Science
Applied — 10-15 marks
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Weeds - their characteristics
Characteristics of weeds - prolificacy / dormancy / dispersal mechanisms Classification of weeds - based on life cycle (annual/biennial/perennial) / morphology (grasses/sedges/broadleaf) / habitat Weed flora shifts due to herbicide use & changing cropping systems Economic losses due to weeds - crop-wise yield loss estimates
Dissemination and association with various crops; multiplication
Modes of weed seed dispersal - wind / water animal / machinery / crop seed contamination Parasitic weeds - Orobanche / Striga / Cuscuta - host crops and management Aquatic weeds - water hyacinth / Salvinia - problems in irrigation systems Weed seed bank dynamics in soil
Cultural, biological, and chemical control of weeds
Cultural methods - crop rotation / stale seedbed / intercropping / mulching Biological control - use of bioagents for parasitic/invasive weeds (e.g. Zygogramma for Parthenium) Chemical control - herbicide classification (selective/non-selective - contact/systemic - pre/post emergence) Herbicide resistance management - resistant weed biotypes (e.g. Phalaris minor in wheat) Integrated Weed Management (IWM) approach Invasive alien weed species - Parthenium / Lantana / water hyacinth - management strategies
4
Forestry
Static + Current — 20 -40 marks
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Important features and scope of forestry
Forest types of India - classification (Champion & Seth) Forest cover statistics - India State of Forest Report (ISFR) highlights National Forest Policy 1988 - key provisions Forest Rights Act 2006 - provisions relevant to tribal/forest dwellers
Social forestry, Agro-forestry, and Natural forests
Social forestry - components (farm forestry / community forestry / extension forestry) Agroforestry systems - classification (agrisilviculture / silvopasture / agrosilvopasture) National Agroforestry Policy 2014 Trees Outside Forests (TOF) and their role in carbon sequestration Natural forest ecosystems - tropical / temperate / alpine
Propagation of forest plants
Seed-based propagation - seed collection / treatment / viability of forest tree seeds Vegetative propagation - cuttings / grafting / layering for fast-growing species Tissue culture/micropropagation of forest species Nursery management techniques for afforestation programmes
Forest products. Agro forestry and value addition
Major Forest Produce (MFP) vs Minor/Non-Timber Forest Produce (NTFP) - MSP for MFP scheme Value addition of NTFP - tendu leaves / lac gums / resins / medicinal plants Bamboo as agroforestry crop - National Bamboo Mission / delisting of bamboo from 'tree' category Wood-based industries - pulp / plywood linkage with agroforestry
Conservation of forest flora and fauna
Biodiversity conservation strategies - in-situ (PAs / biosphere reserves) and ex-situ (gene banks / botanical gardens) Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management (CAMPA) Human-wildlife conflict in agricultural areas - crop damage by wild animals / mitigation REDD+ mechanism and India's forest carbon initiatives Endangered/endemic flora & fauna in agro-forest ecosystems - IUCN Red List relevance
5
Soil Science
Conceptual — 40-50 marks
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Soil - physical, chemical and biological properties
Soil texture / structure / bulk density / porosity - definitions & significance Soil colloids - types / properties / cation exchange capacity (CEC) Soil pH EC buffering capacity - effect on nutrient availability Soil organic matter - composition / role / decomposition process Soil microbial biomass & soil enzymes as indicators of soil health
Processes and factors of soil formation
Soil forming factors - climate parent material relief organisms time (CLORPT) Soil forming processes - weathering (physical / chemical / biological) Soil profile development - horizon differentiation (O / A / B / C / R) Pedogenic processes - laterization / podzolization / calcification / salinization
Soils of India
Major soil groups - alluvial / black (regur) / red & yellow / laterite / arid/desert / saline & alkaline / peaty/marshy Soil taxonomy - USDA classification system applied to Indian soils Soil survey programmes - NBSS&LUP / digital soil mapping Soil Health Card scheme - parameters and implementation
Mineral and organic constituents and their role in soil productivity
Primary and secondary minerals in soil Clay minerals - kaolinite / montmorillonite / illite - properties affecting fertility Humus formation and its role in nutrient retention & soil structure Carbon sequestration in soils - soil organic carbon (SOC) as climate mitigation tool
Essential plant nutrients and beneficial elements
Macronutrients vs micronutrients - classification (PYQ-recurrent) Functions and deficiency symptoms of N / P / K / Ca / Mg / S Micronutrient deficiencies - Zn / B / Fe / Mn deficiency in Indian soils & correction Beneficial elements - Si / Na / Co - role in specific crops
Principles of soil fertility, soil testing and fertilizer recommendations
Soil fertility vs soil productivity - distinction Soil testing methods - sampling / analysis / critical limits Fertilizer recommendation approaches - STCR (Soil Test Crop Response) / Targeted yield concept Balanced fertilization - NPK ratio trends in India
Integrated nutrient management (INM)
INM concept - combining organic / inorganic and biological sources / Role of FYM / compost / vermicompost / green manuring in INM 4R Nutrient Stewardship (Right source / rate / time / place) INM impact on soil health and sustainability
Bio-fertilizers
Types of biofertilizers - Rhizobium / Azotobacter / Azospirillum / PSB / mycorrhiza / blue-green algae Mode of action & crop-specific application Quality control standards for biofertilizer production Government promotion - National Biofertilizer Mission/schemes
Nitrogen losses, NUE in submerged rice soils, N fixation
Nitrogen loss mechanisms - volatilization / denitrification / leaching / runoff / Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) - current status & improvement strategies (PYQ-recurrent) Neem-coated urea & slow/controlled release fertilizers Biological nitrogen fixation - symbiotic / associative / non-symbiotic Submerged rice soil chemistry - redox potential and N transformation
Efficient phosphorus and potassium use
P fixation in soils - factors affecting P availability (pH / Al/Fe oxides) Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) and rock phosphate use K dynamics in soil - fixed / exchangeable / available forms India's import dependence on P & K fertilizers - policy implications
Problem soils and their reclamation
Saline and sodic soils - characteristics / ESP - SAR / reclamation (gypsum application / leaching) (PYQ-recurrent) Acid soils - liming materials and dose calculation Waterlogged/marshy soils - drainage-based reclamation Reclamation case studies - canal command area salinity (e.g. Indo-Gangetic plains)
Soil factors affecting greenhouse gas emission
Methane emission from rice paddies - water management to reduce CH4 (AWD - alternate wetting & drying) Nitrous oxide emission from N fertilizer application Soil carbon flux - tillage practices and SOC dynamics Mitigation strategies - biochar application in soils
6
Soil and Water Management
Applied — 40-50 marks
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Soil Conservation
Causes of soil erosion - water erosion (sheet / rill / gully) / wind erosion Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) - factors (R / K / L / S / C / P) Mechanical measures - contour bunding / terracing / graded bunds Vegetative measures - cover cropping / strip cropping / agronomic measures for erosion control
Integrated watershed management
Watershed concept - ridge to valley approach Watershed development programmes - PMKSY (Watershed Development Component) / earlier IWMP (PYQ-recurrent) Ridge area treatment drainage line treatment water harvesting structures People's participation - Watershed Committees / role of NGOs (e.g. Hiware Bazar / Ralegan Siddhi models)
Soil erosion management; dry land agriculture problems
Dryland farming - definition / challenges (moisture stress / low & erratic rainfall) Rainfed Area Development Programme (RADP) Contingency crop planning for drought years (PYQ-recurrent) Soil moisture conservation practices - mulching / tillage / ridge-furrow system
Technology for stabilizing agriculture production in rainfed areas
Drought-tolerant/short-duration varieties for rainfed cropping In-situ moisture conservation techniques Crop diversification & alternate land use systems in rainfed regions National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) - rainfed technology demonstrations
Water-use efficiency in relation to crop production
Concepts - field water use efficiency / crop water use efficiency / water productivity Per Drop More Crop (PDMC) component of PMKSY (PYQ-recurrent) Deficit irrigation strategies Evapotranspiration (ET) - measurement and crop water requirement (Penman-Monteith method)
Criteria for scheduling irrigations
Soil moisture-based scheduling - field capacity / permanent wilting point Climatological approach - pan evaporation / IW/CPE ratio Plant indicator-based scheduling - leaf water potential / canopy temperature Critical growth stages for irrigation in major crops
Ways and means of reducing runoff losses of irrigation water
Land leveling and laser land leveling technology Tail-end management in canal irrigation systems On-farm water management structures - field channels / check basins
Rainwater harvesting
In-situ vs ex-situ rainwater harvesting techniques Farm ponds / check dams / percolation tanks - design considerations Roof-top rainwater harvesting in rural/agricultural context Government schemes promoting rainwater harvesting structures
Drip and sprinkler irrigation
Components and design of drip irrigation systems Suitability of sprinkler vs drip for different crops/soils Subsidy schemes for micro-irrigation - PMKSY-Micro Irrigation Fund (MIF) Fertigation through drip systems
Drainage of waterlogged soils
Surface drainage vs subsurface drainage methods Causes of waterlogging - canal seepage / over-irrigation / poor natural drainage Drainage coefficient and drainage system design basics Reclamation of waterlogged saline areas (linkage with problem soils)
Quality of irrigation water
Irrigation water quality parameters - EC / SAR / RSC / pH Classification of irrigation water (USSL classification) Use of poor-quality/saline water - management strategies Wastewater/sewage water use in agriculture - risks and FAO/WHO guidelines
Effect of industrial effluents on soil and water pollution
Heavy metal contamination from industrial effluents - effect on soil health & food chain Case studies - effluent-affected agricultural areas (e.g. tannery belts / dye industry zones) Effluent treatment standards (CPCB norms) relevant to agricultural land use Bioremediation/phytoremediation of contaminated agricultural soils
Irrigation projects in India
Major / medium / minor irrigation classification Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) & PMKSY components Command Area Development (CAD) programme River-linking projects relevant to irrigation expansion (Ken-Betwa etc.) Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) & Water User Associations (WUAs)
7
Agricultural Economics
Data-heavy — 20-25 marks
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Farm management - scope, importance, characteristics, farm planning
Definition and scope of farm management as a discipline Farm planning - linear programming approach for resource allocation Farm budgeting - whole farm budget / partial budget / enterprise budget Characteristics of Indian farms - small/marginal holdings predominance
Optimum resource use and budgeting
Factor-factor / factor-product / product-product relationships in production economics Law of diminishing returns application in input use Break-even analysis for farm enterprises Cost concepts - Cost A1/A2 / Cost B / Cost C (CACP methodology)
Economics of different types of farming systems
Cost-benefit analysis of integrated farming systems vs monoculture Economics of organic farming vs conventional farming Economics of contract farming arrangements Risk and return analysis across farming systems
Marketing management - strategies for development, market intelligence
Agricultural marketing channels & marketing efficiency / marketing margins e-NAM (National Agriculture Market) - features / progress / challenges Market intelligence systems - Agmarknet / price forecasting Value chain development & post-harvest infrastructure (Agri-Infrastructure Fund) Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) - role in marketing (10000 FPO scheme)
Price fluctuations and their cost; role of co-operatives
Causes of agricultural price fluctuations - seasonality / perishability / demand-supply mismatch Price stabilization mechanisms - buffer stocks / Market Intervention Scheme (MIS) / PSF Role of cooperatives - marketing cooperatives / NAFED / AMUL model Multi-State Cooperative Societies Act amendments & cooperative sector reforms
Types and systems of farming and factors affecting them
Subsistence vs commercial farming Plantation farming mixed farming specialized farming - characteristics Factors - land tenure / capital availability / market access / climate / technology adoption
Agricultural price policy
MSP mechanism - CACP recommendations / crops covered (PYQ-recurrent / very high frequency) Procurement policy - FCI operations / decentralized procurement Issue price & PDS pricing linkage Farm laws 2020 and their repeal - background and implications (PYQ-recurrent recent) Income support schemes - PM-KISAN
Crop Insurance
Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) - features / yield estimation technology (PYQ-recurrent) Weather-Based Crop Insurance Scheme (WBCIS) Restructured Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme - issues & reforms Use of remote sensing/drones/Yield Estimation System (YES-TECH) in crop insurance claims (recent)
8
Agricultural Extension
Scoring — 15-20 marks
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Agricultural extension - importance and role
Definition / objectives and philosophy of agricultural extension Extension approaches - T&V system (historical) / ATMA model (PYQ-recurrent) Pluralistic extension system - public / private / NGO players Digital extension - Kisan Call Centre / mKisan / agri-apps
Methods of evaluation of extension programmes
Types of evaluation - formative / summative / impact evaluation Indicators for measuring extension programme effectiveness - adoption rate / knowledge gain Participatory monitoring & evaluation (PME) approaches
Socio-economic survey and status of farmers/landless labourers
Classification - big small marginal farmers based on landholding size (Agriculture Census data) Status of landless agricultural labourers - wage trends / MGNREGA linkage Land fragmentation trend & its implications (PYQ-recurrent) Agricultural Census findings - operational holdings trends
Training programmes for extension workers
SAMETI/MANAGE - institutional framework for extension training Capacity building of extension functionaries - frontline workers Farmer Field School (FFS) approach
Role of Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVK)
KVK mandate - technology assessment / refinement / demonstration / training (PYQ-recurrent) Front Line Demonstrations (FLD) - role in technology dissemination KVK network coverage and ICAR linkage Cluster Frontline Demonstration on oilseeds/pulses
NGO and self-help group approach for rural development
Role of SHGs in agricultural input/output linkages microfinance (NRLM/DAY-NRLM) NGO models in agricultural extension - case examples Women SHGs and women in agriculture - feminization of agriculture trend Farmer Producer Organizations as extension/aggregation vehicles (cross-link with marketing)

📗 Paper II  ·  Plant Sciences, Breeding & Technology

250 Marks
1
Genetics / Cell Biology
Conceptual — 20-30 marks
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Cell structure, function and cell cycle
Plant cell organelles - structure & function (cell wall / plastids / mitochondria / ER / Golgi) Cell cycle phases - G1 - S - G2 M - regulation checkpoints Mitosis vs meiosis - significance in plant breeding Cell signalling basics relevant to stress response
Synthesis, structure and function of genetic material
DNA structure - Watson-Crick model / replication mechanism RNA types and their roles - mRNA / tRNA / rRNA role of non-coding RNA (miRNA / siRNA) in gene regulation Gene expression - transcription & translation / central dogma Genetic code - properties and significance
Laws of heredity
Mendel's laws - segregation / independent assortment / dominance / Deviations from Mendelian ratios - epistasis / gene interaction Test cross / back cross - applications in breeding Multiple alleles and their inheritance pattern
Chromosome structure, chromosomal aberrations
Chromosome morphology - centromere position / satellite chromosomes Structural aberrations - deletion / duplication / inversion / translocation Numerical aberrations - significance in crop improvement Karyotype analysis applications in plant breeding
Linkage and cross-over, significance in recombination breeding
Linkage groups and genetic maps Crossing over mechanism and recombination frequency Linkage maps vs physical maps - molecular marker-based mapping (QTL mapping) Application of linkage analysis in marker-assisted selection
Polyploidy, euploids and aneuploids
Autopolyploidy vs allopolyploidy - examples in crop plants (wheat cotton) Aneuploidy types - monosomics / trisomics / nullisomics and their breeding use Role of polyploidy in speciation and crop evolution Induced polyploidy - colchicine treatment applications
Mutations and their role in crop improvement
Spontaneous vs induced mutations - mutagens (physical & chemical) Mutation breeding - successful mutant varieties in India (PYQ-recurrent) TILLING and genome editing-induced mutations - relation to CRISPR (cross-link with biotechnology)
Heritability, sterility and incompatibility - classification and application
Heritability - broad sense vs narrow sense estimation methods Genetic advance and its use in selection Male sterility - genetic / cytoplasmic / cytoplasmic-genetic (CGMS) - hybrid seed production relevance Self-incompatibility mechanisms - gametophytic & sporophytic
Cytoplasmic inheritance, sex-linked, sex-influenced and sex-limited characters
Cytoplasmic/maternal inheritance - examples (CMS systems) Sex-linked inheritance in dioecious crops (papaya spinach) Sex-influenced and sex-limited traits - examples in plants/animals relevant to agriculture
2
Plant Breeding
Applied — 30-40 marks
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History of plant breeding
Evolution of plant breeding - from domestication to modern biotechnology Contributions of Indian plant breeders/institutions (IARI / Norman Borlaug-Green Revolution link) Milestones - hybrid development / dwarf wheat/rice varieties
Modes of reproduction, selfing and crossing techniques
Self-pollinated vs cross-pollinated vs often cross-pollinated crops - breeding implications Emasculation and pollination techniques for hybridization Apomixis - significance for hybrid seed fixation
Special Breeding Techniques
Mutation breeding — physical & chemical mutagens Polyploidy breeding — autopolyploidy allopolyploidy Wide hybridization & interspecific crosses Breeding for disease & pest resistance — vertical horizontal Breeding for stress tolerance — drought salinity Ideotype breeding — Donald concept Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) Participatory Plant Breeding (PPB)
Origin, evolution and domestication of crop plants; centre of origin; crop genetic resources
Vavilov's centres of origin - major crops and their centres Law of homologous series in variation Crop genetic resources conservation - NBPGR / gene banks / in-situ/ex-situ conservation Plant Genome Saving Authority / PPV&FR Act and farmers' rights International treaties - ITPGRFA (International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources)
Application of principles of plant breeding - improvement of crop plants
Breeding objectives - yield quality biotic/abiotic stress resistance Ideotype breeding concept Breeding for nutritional quality - biofortification (HarvestPlus / Zn/Fe-rich varieties) Breeding for climate resilience - drought/heat/flood tolerant varieties
Molecular markers and their application in plant improvement
Types of molecular markers - RFLP / RAPD / SSR / SNP Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS) and Marker-Assisted Backcrossing (MABC) Genomic selection - concept and application in crop breeding DNA fingerprinting for variety identification (cross-link with seed production)
Pure-line selection, pedigree, mass and recurrent selections; combining ability
Pure line selection method - applications in self-pollinated crops Pedigree method vs bulk method vs mass selection - comparison Recurrent selection schemes for population improvement in cross-pollinated crops General combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) - diallel/line x tester analysis
Heterosis and its exploitation
Genetic basis of heterosis - dominance & overdominance hypotheses Hybrid seed production technology - male sterility systems used (cross-link with cell biology) Heterosis breeding success stories hybrid rice / maize / bajra / cotton Issues in hybrid seed - cost / seed replacement / farmer dependency on seed companies
Somatic hybridization
Protoplast fusion technique and applications Somatic hybrids vs sexual hybrids - advantages for wide cross barriers Cybrids and their significance Limitations and success cases in vegetable/fruit crops
Breeding for disease and pest resistance
Sources of resistance - wild relatives landraces Mechanisms of resistance - vertical (race-specific) vs horizontal resistance Gene pyramiding for durable resistance Resistance breeding case studies - rice blast / wheat rust resistance genes
Role of interspecific and intergeneric hybridization
Wide hybridization techniques - embryo rescue / ovule culture / Examples - Triticale (wheat x rye) introgression of wild genes into cultivated species Bridge crosses for overcoming incompatibility barriers
Role of genetic engineering and biotechnology in crop improvement
Recombinant DNA technology basics - vectors / gene transfer methods (Agrobacterium / gene gun) CRISPR-Cas9 genome editing - applications and regulatory status in India Tissue culture applications - micropropagation / somaclonal variation / doubled haploids Synthetic biology applications in agriculture
Genetically modified crop plants
GM crops approved/under trial in India - Bt cotton status / GM mustard controversy Biosafety regulatory framework - GEAC / Cartagena Protocol Cisgenics vs transgenics - distinction and regulatory implications Public perception and labelling debates around GM food
3
Plant Physiology
Conceptual — 25-30 marks
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Principles of plant nutrition, absorption, translocation and metabolism
Mechanisms of nutrient/ion uptake - active vs passive transport Translocation in phloem - pressure flow hypothesis Foliar nutrition and its physiological basis Nutrient mobility within plant - mobile vs immobile nutrients and deficiency symptom location
Soil-water-plant relationship
Soil water potential/ plant water potential / water potential gradient Water absorption mechanisms - root pressure / transpiration pull Stomatal physiology - mechanism of opening/closing SPAC (Soil-Plant-Atmosphere Continuum) concept
Enzymes and plant pigments
Enzyme kinetics basics - factors affecting enzyme activity Chlorophyll structure & function - chlorophyll a vs b Other pigments - carotenoids / anthocyanins / phytochrome - roles in photomorphogenesis Antioxidant enzymes - role in stress tolerance (SOD / catalase / peroxidase)
Photosynthesis - modern concepts and factors affecting
Light reactions and dark reactions (Calvin cycle) - overview Factors affecting photosynthesis - light intensity / CO2 concentration / temperature Photorespiration and its significance Source-sink relationship and harvest index concept
C3, C4 and CAM mechanisms
Biochemical and anatomical differences - Kranz anatomy in C4 plants Comparative efficiency - C3 vs C4 vs CAM under different environments Examples of crops - C3 (rice / wheat) C4 (maize / sugarcane / sorghum) CAM (pineapple / cacti) Implications for climate change adaptation - C4 photosynthesis engineering into C3 crops
Factors affecting aerobic and anaerobic respiration
Respiratory pathways - glycolysis / TCA cycle / electron transport chain Anaerobic respiration/fermentation - relevance to flooded soils (rice) Respiratory quotient and its significance Temperature/oxygen effects on respiration rate and post-harvest storage implications
Carbohydrate, Protein and fat metabolism
Starch and sugar metabolism in storage organs Nitrogen metabolism - amino acid synthesis / protein synthesis regulation Lipid metabolism in oilseed crops - oil accumulation during seed development C:N ratio and its agronomic significance
Growth and development; photoperiodism and vernalization
Phases of plant growth - vegetative / reproductive / senescence Photoperiodism - short-day / long-day / day-neutral plants and flowering response Vernalization - mechanism and significance in temperate crops (wheat) Phenology and its modeling for crop management
Plant growth substances and their role in crop production
Classes of plant hormones - auxins/ gibberellins / cytokinins / ethylene / abscisic acid Practical applications - GA in seedless fruit / ethylene in fruit ripening / auxins in rooting Plant Growth Regulators (PGRs) - regulatory status and use in agriculture Novel growth regulators - strigolactones/brassinosteroids
Physiology of seed development and germination; dormancy
Seed development stages - embryogenesis / maturation / desiccation Types of seed dormancy - physiological / physical (hard seed coat) and methods to break dormancy Germination physiology - imbibition / mobilization of reserves Pre-harvest sprouting issues in cereals
Stress physiology - drought, salt and water stress
Drought stress responses - osmotic adjustment / proline accumulation / ABA signalling Salinity stress - ion toxicity / osmotic stress / mechanisms of salt tolerance Waterlogging stress - aerenchyma formation / anaerobic metabolism Heat stress tolerance mechanisms - heat shock proteins (relevant to climate change adaptation / recent)
4
Seed Production and Technology
Applied — 15-20 marks
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Seed production and processing technologies
Seed production stages - breeder / foundation / certified seed (seed chain) Isolation distance requirements and genetic purity maintenance Seed processing - cleaning / grading / treatment/ packaging Hybrid seed production logistics - detasseling / roguing
Seed certification, seed testing and storage
Seed certification agencies and standards (Seed Act / Minimum Seed Certification Standards) Seed testing parameters - germination % / purity / moisture content / vigour tests Seed storage - factors affecting viability (temperature / moisture / seed coat) hermetic storage technology Seed village concept and quality seed availability programmes
DNA finger printing and seed registration
DNA fingerprinting techniques for variety identification & purity testing Variety registration process - PPV&FRA registration Essentially Derived Variety (EDV) concept Seed traceability systems
Role of public and private sectors in seed production and marketing
Public sector seed agencies - NSC / State Seed Corporations Private seed industry growth - hybrid seed market dynamics Seed replacement rate (SRR) and varietal replacement rate (VRR) - current status New Seed Bill/Seeds Bill provisions and debates
IPR issues, WTO issues and impact on Agriculture
TRIPS Agreement - Article 27.3(b) and plant variety protection obligations PPV&FR Act 2001 - farmers' rights vs breeders' rights balance Geographical Indications (GI) for agricultural products - examples & economic impact (PYQ-recurrent / recent) WTO Agreement on Agriculture - domestic support boxes (Green / Amber / Blue) and India's position Patent issues in biotechnology - product vs process patents
5
Horticulture
Scoring — 30-40 marks
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Major fruits, plantation crops, vegetables, spices and flower crops
Classification of fruits - tropical / sub-tropical / temperate - major Indian fruit belts Plantation crops - tea / coffee / rubber / cashew / coconut - economic importance & regional concentration Major vegetable crops - solanaceous / cucurbits / leafy vegetables - cultivation overview Spice crops - black pepper / cardamom / turmeric / chillies - GI tags & export significance Floriculture crops - cut flowers / loose flowers - export floriculture trends
Package practices of major horticultural crops
Propagation methods specific to fruit crops - grafting / budding / layering Canopy management & high-density planting in fruit orchards Nutrient and water management in horticultural crops - fertigation Pruning and training systems for fruit crops
Protected cultivation and high tech horticulture
Greenhouse/polyhouse types and structures suited to Indian climate Hydroponics aeroponics vertical farming - emerging trends in urban horticulture Net house and shade net cultivation for vegetables/flowers Government schemes promoting protected cultivation (MIDH - Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture)
Post-harvest technology and value addition of fruits and vegetables
Post-harvest losses - extent and causes in India Cold chain infrastructure - pack houses / ripening chambers / reefer vans (Agri Infrastructure Fund linkage) Processing technologies - dehydration / canning / IQF (Individual Quick Freezing) / minimal processing Operation Greens scheme - TOP (Tomato / Onion / Potato) crops focus
Landscaping and commercial floriculture
Principles of landscape design - elements relevant to agri-tourism/farm landscaping Commercial floriculture - export-oriented flower production clusters (Pune / Bangalore regions) Protected cultivation for cut flowers (rose / gerbera / carnation)
Medicinal and aromatic plants
Major medicinal/aromatic plants cultivated in India - Ashwagandha / Aloe vera / lemongrass / etc National Medicinal Plants Board & cultivation promotion schemes Essential oil extraction and aromatic plant-based industry potential Export potential of medicinal plant produce
Role of fruits and vegetables in human nutrition
Nutritional contribution of fruits/vegetables - vitamins / minerals / fibre Per capita fruit/vegetable consumption vs ICMR dietary recommendations (cross-link with food & nutrition section) Biofortified fruit/vegetable varieties for micronutrient security Role of horticulture in nutrition-sensitive agriculture/POSHAN Abhiyaan
6
Plant Protection
Med Scoring 20-30 marks
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Diagnosis of pests and diseases of field crops, vegetables, orchard and plantation crops
Symptom-based diagnosis - distinguishing biotic vs abiotic stress symptoms Major insect pest groups - sucking pests / borers / defoliators - economic importance Major disease groups - fungal / bacterial / viral nematode diseases of major crops Emerging/invasive pests - Fall Armyworm in maize / locust attacks
Classification of pests and diseases and their management
Classification based on host range / mode of damage / life cycle Economic Threshold Level (ETL) concept in pest management Disease triangle concept - host / pathogen / environment interaction Resistance breeding as a management tool (cross-link with plant breeding)
Integrated pest and disease management (IPM/IDM)
Components of IPM - cultural / mechanical / biological / chemical / host resistance Economic Injury Level (EIL) vs ETL - decision-making in IPM National IPM programmes and Farmer Field Schools for IPM Pesticide resistance management strategies
Storage pests and their management
Major storage pests - Sitophilus / Tribolium / Rhyzopertha - damage patterns Storage structures - traditional vs modern (silos / hermetic bags) Fumigation practices and safety - phosphine resistance issue Post-harvest loss reduction through improved storage - linkage with FCI/CWC infrastructure
Biological control of pests and diseases
Types of biocontrol agents - predators / parasitoids / entomopathogens (Bt / NPV / Trichoderma) Successful biocontrol programmes in India - examples (e.g.Trichogramma for borers) Botanical pesticides - neem-based formulations Biopesticide registration and promotion policy
Epidemiology and forecasting of major crop pests and diseases
Disease/pest forecasting models - weather-based forewarning systems Remote sensing & AI-based pest surveillance (Pest Surveillance and Advisory System/ recent) Epidemic outbreaks - case studies (locust 2020 fall armyworm spread) Role of KVKs/Plant Protection advisories in early warning
Plant quarantine measures
Domestic quarantine vs international quarantine - regulatory framework (Plant Quarantine Order 2003) - Role of NPPO (National Plant Protection Organisation) and PQ stations Quarantine pests of concern for India's agri-imports/exports SPS (Sanitary and Phytosanitary) measures under WTO - trade implications (cross-link with WTO/IPR topic)
Pesticides, their formulation and modes of action
Classification of pesticides - insecticides / fungicides / herbicides / by chemical group Formulation types EC / WP / granules / ULV and their field application relevance Modes of action - contact / systemic / translaminar resistance mechanisms Pesticide regulation - Insecticides Act / banned pesticides list / MRL (Maximum Residue Limit) issues
8
Food Management
Current Affairs heavy — 15-20 marks
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Food production and consumption trends in India
Trends in foodgrain production - cereals / pulses / oilseeds over recent decades Per capita food consumption trends - shift towards processed/diversified diets State-wise production disparities - surplus vs deficit states Agriculture GVA growth trends and sectoral contribution
Food security and growing population - vision 2020 (and beyond)
National Food Security Act (NFSA) 2013 - coverage and entitlements (PYQ-recurrent) Population projections and future food demand estimation Right to Food framework and judicial interventions Sustainable Development Goal 2 (Zero Hunger) - India's progress (Global Hunger Index debates)
Reasons for grain surplus
MSP-driven production incentives leading to surplus in rice/wheat Procurement-driven surplus accumulation - FCI godown capacity issues Export policy response to surplus stocks (e.g.rice export bans/restrictions) Ethanol blending programme as outlet for surplus grain (recent policy)
National and international food policies
National food policy instruments - NFSA / PDS / ICDS / PM-POSHAN International food policy bodies - FAO / WFP roles India's stance in WTO food security negotiations - public stockholding issue (cross-link with WTO/Ag Economics)
Production, procurement, distribution constraints
Procurement constraints - regional skew (Punjab/Haryana dominance) / storage capacity gaps Distribution constraints - leakages in PDS / Aadhaar-based reforms / One Nation One Ration Card Decentralized procurement scheme - states' role Last-mile delivery challenges in remote/tribal areas
Availability of food grains, per capita expenditure on food
Net availability of foodgrains - calculation methodology Engel's law and declining share of food expenditure - NSSO consumption expenditure survey findings (PYQ-recurrent) Rural-urban differences in food expenditure patterns Food inflation trends and their impact on consumption
Trends in poverty, PDS, BPL population, TPDS, globalization context
Poverty estimation methodologies - Tendulkar / Rangarajan committees (historical reference) and NITI Aayog multidimensional poverty index Targeted PDS - identification of beneficiaries / exclusion/inclusion errors Impact of globalization/trade liberalization on food security and farmer livelihoods Universal vs targeted PDS debate
Processing constraints
Low level of food processing in India - percentage of produce processed PLI (Production Linked Incentive) scheme for food processing (recent) Infrastructure gaps - cold storage / food parks (Mega Food Parks scheme) Role of FPOs/SHGs in primary processing at farm level
Relation of food production to National Dietary Guidelines and consumption pattern
ICMR-NIN dietary guidelines for Indians - balanced diet recommendations My Plate for the Day concept and its alignment with cropping pattern diversification Shift needed in cropping pattern to match dietary diversity goals (millets / pulses / oilseeds promotion)
Food based dietary approaches to eliminate hunger
Food fortification - rice fortification under ICDS/PDS Biofortification vs industrial fortification - approaches compared Dietary diversification programmes - nutri-gardens / kitchen gardens under POSHAN Abhiyaan School feeding programmes - PM-POSHAN (mid-day meal) nutritional impact
Nutrient deficiency - micronutrient deficiency, PEM/PCM, women & children
Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM) - forms (kwashiorkor / marasmus) and prevalence data Hidden hunger iron / iodine / vitamin A / zinc deficiencies in India Anaemia among women and children - Anemia Mukt Bharat programme (recent) Impact of micronutrient deficiency on human resource development/work capacity NFHS (National Family Health Survey) data trends on malnutrition indicators
Food grain productivity and food security
Yield gap analysis - India vs global productivity benchmarks for major crops Technology Mission on productivity enhancement (e.g. for pulses oilseeds) Climate change impact projections on future foodgrain productivity Role of digital agriculture/AI in closing productivity gaps (Digital Agriculture Mission / recent)

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